CH. 5 - Vascular Systems

DOWNLOAD TEXT FILE (RAPIDSHARE)

Key Words

1. Active Immunity - production of antibodies during immune response

2. Agglutinate - clumping of antigens called by antibodies (Igs)

3. Allergy - inappropriate responses to certain foods and pollens that causes immune response

4. Aorta - largest blood vessel

5. Aortic Loops - 5 pairs of vessels that act as an additional blood pump in earthworms

6. Arteries - branched off of Aorta

7. Arterioles - branched off of arteries

8. Antigen - non-self entities like bacteria, toxins, foreign blood cells, etc

9. B cells - produces antibodies

10. Blood - 4-6 liters in human body. 55% liquid (plasma), 45% cellular component

11. Capillaries - branched off of arterioles

12. Coronary Sinus - deoxygenated blood from heart muscles

13. Erythroblastosis fetalis - caused by Rh factor.  Mother has immune response to fetal blood

14. Fibrin - comes from fibrinogen, comes in threads and would trap blood cells to form clot

15. Fibrinogen - converted into fibrin by thrombin

16. Granulocytes - inflammatory response that phagocytize antigenic material

17. Humoral immunity - production of antibodies against antigens

18. Immunoglobulins - large proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigen for removal

19. Inferior Vena Cava - deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the blood

20. Interferons - proteins produced by cell under viral attack that diffuse and help other cells

21. Left Atrium - receives blood from the 4 pulmonary veins (2 from each lung).  Pumps blood through mitral valve

22. Left Ventricle - receives blood from the left atrium, through the mitral valve, and pumps blood through the semi-lunar valves of aorta to the rest of the body

23. Leukocytes - white blood cells, phagocytic.  Larger than erythrocytes

24. Lung Pathway - nose > pharynx > larynx > trachea > bronchi > bronchioles > alveoli

25. Lymph - interstitial fluid

26. Lymph nodes - swellings along lymph vessels containing leukocytes that filter the lymph, removing and destroying foreign particles and pathogens

27. Mitral valve - the door between left atrium and left ventricle (bicuspid)

28. Passive Immunity - transfer of antibodies from another individual or organism, short lasting

29. Plasma - 55% of blood - nutrients, salts, gasses, wastes, hormones, blood proteins

30. Platelets - cell fragments that lack nuclei and involved in clot formation

31. Prothrombin - activated by thromboplastin into thrombin, made in liver

32. Pulmonary Circulation - toward the lung to oxygenate the blood

33. Right Atrium - receives the deoxygenated blood through 3 sources

34. Right ventricle - receives blood from the right atrium through the right-atrio-ventricular opening.  Pumps blood out to the pulmonary artery through the semi-lunar valves of pulmonary artery

35. Semi-lunar valves - valves to prevent backflow into the left or right ventricles

36. Sinus - a location for open circulatory system to exchange nutrients and wastes (arthropods)

37. Superior Vena Cava - deoxygenated blood from the arm, thorax, and head region

38. Systemic Circulation - pumping oxygenated blood throughout the body

39. T Cells - cytolysis of infected cells

40. Thrombin - activated form of prothrombin, converts fibrinogen into fibrin

41. Thromboplastin - clotting factor that interacts with prothrombin, activating it

42. Vaccination - individual injected with another form of antigen and antibodies build up

43. Vein - Converged from venules

44. Venules - converged from capillaries

Plants

1. Cambium cells - two layers thick and differentiates into xylem or phloem.  Lateral meristem

2. Companion Cells - a type of phloem cell

3. Capillary Action - water in narrow space naturally goes up due to hydrogen-bond properties

4. Fibrovascular bundle - runs up and down stem, contains xylem, phloem, and cambium cells

5. Heartwood - inner layer of xylem that's dead and can be used for lumber

6. Meristem - actively dividing, undifferentiated cells of a plant

7. Phloem - thin-walled cells that transport nutrients down the stem

8. Pith - the innermost layer, involved in storage of nutrients and plant support

9. Root - absorbs materials and anchor the plant. Apical meristem at the tip

10. Root hair - increases surface area for absorption of water and mineral

11. Root pressure - water entering root hair exerts pressure which pushes water up

12. Sapwood - outer layer of xylem that's alive

13. Sieve tube cells - a type of phloem cell

14. Stem - primary organ of transport

15. Tracheids - a type of xylem cell

16. Translocation - circulation

17. Transpiration - water evaporate from leaves, creating vacuum that sucks up water from stem

18. Vessel Cell - a type of xylem cell

Circulation in Invertebrates

1. Protozoans

1. Diffusion within the cell

2. Cnidarians

1. Hydra and other cnidarians only have cell wall as thick as 2 cells, so any cell is in direct contact with internal or external environment

3. Arthropods (insects, crustacean, arachnids, myriapods)

1. Open circulatory system

1. Blood (interstitial fluid) is in direct contact with the body tissues

2. Flow of blood via body movement

3. The exchange happens in the "sinus" and the blood flows through the dorsal vessel into these sinus

4. Annelids (earthworms)

1. Closed circulator system

1. Blood confined in blood vessels

2. Blood moved toward the head via the dorsal vessels via coordinated contractions

3. Aortic loops connects the dorsal vessel to the ventral vessel and functions as additional pump

4. No red blood cell, but does have hemoglobin-like pigments

Circulation in Humans

1. General

1. Composed of

1. a heart with 4 chambers

2. Blood vessels

3. Blood

2. Blood pumped through aorta (going away from heart)

3. Blood returns through vein (coming to heart)

4. Blood vessel branching

1. Aorta branches off into series of arteries

2. Arteries branches off into arterioles

3. Arterioles branches off into microscopic capillaries

4. Capillaries converges into venules

5. Venules converges into veins

5. Exchange happens through the capillaries via diffusion

2. The Heart

1. The right side

1. Responsible for oxygenating the blood, this is called pulmonary circulation

2. Right Atrium

1. Thin walled

2. Receives the deoxygenated blood from 3 sources

1. Superior vena cava - from head, arms, and thorax

2. Inferior vena cava - lower parts of the body

3. Coronary sinus - blood from walls of the heart

3. Right ventricle

1. Muscular

2. Receives blood from the right atrium

1. Through the right atrio-ventricular opening

3. Pumps the blood through pulmonary arteries to the lungs

1. The opening of this is guarded by a tri-cuspid valve called "semi-lunar valves of pulmonary artery"

2. When the ventricle contracts, the semi-lunar valve closes and blood is forced past through the pulmonary artery

2. The left side

1. Responsible for circulation of oxygenated blood, this is called systemic circulation

2. Left Atrium

1. Thin walled

2. Receives oxygenated blood from the lung via 4 pulmonary veins

3. Pumps the blood through mitral valve to the left ventricle

3. Left ventricle

1. Extremely muscular

2. Receives blood from left atrium through the mitral valve

3. Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through aorta and the semi-lunar valve of aorta

3. Blood Vessels

1. Three types of blood vessels

1. Arteries

1. Thick-walled, muscular, elastic

2. Transports blood away from the heart

2. Veins

1. Thin-walled, inelastic

2. Transport blood to the heart

3. Blood flow depends on compression by skeletal muscles during movement

4. Larger veins have valves that prevent backflow

3. Capillaries

1. Very thin walls composed of a single layer of endothelial cells

2. Gas, nutrient, enzymes, hormones, wastes can readily diffuse

3. Red blood cells must often pass through them single file

4. Lymph vessels

1. Called the secondary circulatory system

2. Transports excess interstitial fluid called lymph

3. Lymph nodes are swellings along lymph vessels containing white blood cells that filter the lymph and destroy foreign particles

4. It also absorbs chylomicrons from small intestine and deliver them to the cardiovascular circulation

5. Blood

1. General

1. On average, human body contains 4-6 liters of blood

2. Blood consist of 55% liquid and 45% cellular components

1. Plasma is the liquid portion

1. Consists of salts, nutrients, respiratory gases, wastes, hormones, blood proteins

2. Cellular components

1. Erythrocytes (red blood cell)

2. Leukocytes (white blood cell)

3. Platelets

2. Erythrocytes (red blood cell)

1. One cell contains approximately 250 million molecules of hemoglobin

2. When hemoglobin binds oxygen, it's called oxyhemoglobin

3. Formed by stem cells in the bone marrow where they lose nuclei, mitochondria, and membranous organelles

4. Lives for about 120 days

1. Phagocytized by special cells in spleen and liver

3. Leukocytes (white blood cell)

1. Larger than erythrocytes

2. Phagocytize foreign matter and organisms such as bacteria

3. Some migrate from blood to tissues where they mature into stationary cells called macrophages

4. Lymphocytes - involved in immune response and production of antibodies or cytolysis of infected cells

5. B cells - produces antibodies

6. T cells - cytolysis of infected cells

4. Platelets - cell fragments that lack nuclei and involved in clot formation

  

Functions of the Circulatory System

1. Transport of gases

1. Hemoglobin transports O2 and CO2

2. Transport of nutrients and wastes

1. Amino acids and simple sugars

1. Are absorbed into the bloodstream at the intestine

2. After processing, delivered to the rest of the body

2. Waste products

1. Diffuse into capillaries

2. Delivered to appropriate excretory organs

3. Clotting

1. Steps for clotting

1. Platelets meet exposed collagen of damaged vessel

1. Release a chemical that causes neighboring platelets to stick together

1. Forms a platelet plug

2. Both platelets and damage tissues releases thromboplastin

1. Thromboplastin is a clotting factor

2. Thromboplastin with calcium and vitamin K, converts prothrombin to active thrombin

3. The active thrombin would convert fibrinogen into fibrin

4. Fibrin would form threads into a coat to stop the flow of blood to form clot

4. Immunological Reactions

1. The body can distinguish between "self" and "nonself" and remember the non-self that it has encountered before

2. The immune system is two different mechanisms

1. Lymphocytes are responsible for

1. Humoral immunity

1. Produces antibodies

2. Cell-mediated immunity

1. Cells that combat fungal and viral infection

3. Immune Cell types

1. B cells - produces antibodies

2. Cytotoxic T cells - destroy infected cell

3. Suppressor T cells - regulates activity of B and T cells

4. Helper T cells - activate B and T cells

4. Humoral immunity

1. Produces antibodies and very specific to the antigens

2. Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins (Igs)

1. Recognize and bind to specific antigen

2. Calls for white blood cells (leukocytes) to phagocytize the antigen

3. Causes antigens to clump together into large insoluble complex

1. This clumping is called agglutinate

3. Active immunity

1. Production of antibodies during immune response

2. Can be given with vaccination

1. Individual is injected with weakened, inactive form of the antigen and this stimulates the body to produce specific antibodies against it

4. Passive immunity

1. Only last as long as the antibodies circulate in the blood system

2. Transfer of antibodies from another individual or organism

1. ie - maternal antibodies cross the placenta and enters fetal circulation

1. Gamma globulin - contains wide variety of antibodies

5. Nonspecific Defense Mechanism

1. Skin

1. physical barrier against bacterial invasion

2. Sweat attacks bacterial cell wall

2. Mucous-coated epithelia

1. Lines passages like respiratory

2. Filter and trap foreign particles

3. Macrophages

1. Engulf and destroy foreign particle

4. Inflammatory

1. Initiated by the body in response to physical damage

2. Histamine is what causes the inflammation

1. Blood vessels dilate and increase blood flow

3. Granulocytes

1. Attracted to injury site and phagocytize antigenic material

4. Often fever accompanies such

5. Interferons

1. Proteins produced by cells under viral attack

2. Diffuse to other cells and prevent the spread of virus

6. Allergy

1. Inappropriate response to foods and pollens that causes the body to form antibodies and release histamine

6. Rejection of Transplants

1. Immune response to foreign organs or tissues causing transplant to be rejected

2. Immuno-suppressing drugs can be used to lower the immune response

7. Blood

1. Red blood cells have characteristic cell-surface proteins (antigens)

2. ABO Group

1. Blood type A has A Antigen and produces anti-B antibodies

2. Blood type B has B antigen and produces anti-A antibodies

3. AB (universal recipient), has A and B antigen, produces no antibodies

4. O (universal donor), has no antigen, produces anti-A and anti-B

3. Rh factor

1. Rh+ - possesses Rh antigen

2. Rh- - lacking the Rh antigen

3. Rh- woman with Rh+ fetus has an immune response.  The next time she carries a Rh+ fetus, the blood that goes into fetal circulation will destroy fetal red blood cell

1. This causes erythroblastosis fetalis

Transport Systems in Plants

1. General

1. Circulation is called "translocation"

2. Stem is the primary organ of transport

3. Fibrovascular bundles - run up and down the stem

1. Contains xylem, phloem, and cambium cells

2. Xylem

1. Cells

1. Thick-walled

2. Hollow

3. Located on the inside of the vascular bundle

4. Two types of Xylem Cells

1. Vessel cells

2. Tracheids

2. Carries water and minerals up the plant and give the plant the rigid suport

3. When older xylem cells die, they form heartwood (lumber)

4. The living portion is called sapwood

5. How water is pulled up through the xylem cells

1. Transpiration pull - as water evaporates from the leaves of plants, vacuum is created which pulls up the water from stem

2. Capillary action - any liquid in a thin tube will rise due to surface tension and the interactions between liquid and the tube

3. Root Pressure - water going into root hairs exert pressure which push water up

3. Phloem

1. Thin-walled cells on the outside of the vascular bundle

2. Transports nutrients down the stem

3. Two types of phloem cells

1. Sieve tube cells

2. Companion cells

4. If a stripe of bark around the trunk is removed (girdled), the tree will die

4. Cambium

1. Two layers thick

1. Divide and differentiates into either xylem or phloem

1. This differentiation depends on if it's closer to xylem or phloem

2. Situated between xylem and phloem layer

5. Gross structure of a woody stem

1. Epidermis (outerbark) > cortex > phloem > cambium, xylem > pith

2. Pith is involved in the storage of nutrients and plant support

6. Root

1. Function

1. Absorb material through root hairs

2. Anchor plants

3. Provide storage

2. Root hairs

1. Specialized cells of the root to increase surface area for absorption of water and mineral

7. Regions of Growth in the Plant

1. Meristem - active dividing undifferentiated cells of a plant

1. Cambium - lateral meristem

2. Apical meristem - tip of roots and stems for elongation