CH. 1 - The Basis Of Life

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1. Keywords

1. Absorption - The passage of nutrient molecules through lining of the digestive tracts

2. Anabolic reactions - build up of large chemicals

3. Assimilation - the building of new tissues from digested food

4. Catabolic reaction - break down of large chemicals

5. Digestion - the process of converting food into usable form

6. Excretion - The removal of waste products

7. Growth - Increase in size due to synthesis

8. Homeostasis - The body's ability to change to adapt to external environment

9. Ingestion - Acquisition of food and other raw materials

10. Inorganic Compounds - Compounds that do not contain the element carbon

11. Irritability - Ability to respond to a stimulus

12. Metabolism - Sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body

13. Organic Compounds - made by living systems and contain carbon

14. Photosynthesis - process by which plants converts CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates

15. Protoplasm - Substance of life

16. Regulation - The control of physiological activities

17. Reproduction - The generation of additional individuals of a species

18. Respiration - The consumption of oxygen by the body

19. Synthesis - The creation of complex molecules from simple ones.

20. Transport - the circulation of essential compounds

2. Types of Protein

1. Simple - Composed entirely of amino acids

2. Albumins and globulins - primarily globular in nature.  Carriers or enzymes.

3. Scleroproteins - fibrous in nature and act as structural protein.  Collagen.

4. Conjugated - Simple protein portion with nonprotein parts.

5. Lipoprotein - protein bound to lipid

6. Mucoprotein - protein bound to carbohydrate

7. Chromoproteins - protein bound to pigmented molecules

8. Metalloproteins - protein complexed around a metal ion

9. Nucleoproteins - protein containing histone or protamine (bound to DNA)

3. Cell Terminology

1. Autolysis - rupture of lysosome membrane and cell suicides

2. Brownian movement - Movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell

3. Cyclosis - streaming movement within the cell

Biochemistry

1. General

1. All living things composed of

1. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus

2. In trace amounts of magnesium, iodine, iron, calcium, and other minerals

2. Carbohydrates

1. General

1. Consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in 1:2:1 ratio

2. It is a storage form of energy

3. dehydration synthesis - joins saccharide units together by loss of a water molecule

4. Hydrolysis - break down of saccharide polymers

2. Monosaccharide

1. Fructose, Glucose, Galactose, Mannose

3. Disaccharide

1. Maltose and Sucrose

4. Polysaccharide

1. Cellulose, Starch, Glycogen

3. Lipids

1. General

1. Consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

2. H:O ratio is 2:1 with a lot more hydrogen than oxygen

3. Backbone structure consists of 3 fatty acid bonded to a single glycerol backbone.

4. Three dehydration synthesis are required to form one fat molecule

5. Chief means of food storage in animals

6. Release more energy per gram weight than any other class of biological compounds

7. Provides insulation and protection against injury

2. Derivatives

1. Phospholipids

1. Contain glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate group, and nitrogen containing alcohol

2. Examples

1. Lecithin - major constituent of cell membranes

2. Cephalin - found in brain, nerves, and neural tissue

2. Ester

1. Esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols

2. Found as protective coating on skin, on fur, on leaves, on exoskeleton of insects

3. Examples

1. Lanolin - a fatty substance obtained in wool and used in soaps, cosmetic, and ointments

3. Steroids

1. All have three fused cyclohexane rings and one fused cyclopentane ring

2. Examples

1. Cholesterol -

2. Sex hormones - testosterone, estrogen

3. Corticosteroids -

4. Carotenoids

1. Fataty acid-like carbon chains containing conjugated double bonds and carry a 6 carbon ring at the end

2. Pigments that produces colors in animals and plants

3. Examples

1. Carotenes

2. Xanthophylls

5. Porphyrins

1. Called tetra-pyrroles which contains 4 joined pyrrole rings

2. Often complexed with metal.

3. In hemoglobin, porphyrin heme is complexed with Iron

4. In chlorophylls, porphyrin is complexed with Magnesium

4. Proteins

1. General

1. Consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.  May contain Phosphorus and Sulfur.

2. Polymers of amino acid joined by peptide bonds via dehydration synthesis.

2. Protein Functions

1. Hormones - chemical messengers

1. Examples

1. ACTH - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone secreted by anterior pituitary

2. Insulin

2. Enzymes - increases rate of reactions

1. Examples

1. Amylase, lipase, ATPASE

3. Structural proteins - physical support of a cell or tissue

1. Examples

1. Collagen

4. Transport proteins - carriers of important materials

1. Examples

1. Hemoglobin - blood

2. Cytochromes - carries electrons during cellular respiration

5. Antibodies - Binds to foreign particles

5. Enzymes

1. General

1. Protein organic catalysts

2. Substrates are the reactants, and it binds to the active site.

3. Enzymes can be used for both forward and reverse reactions

2. Two models of binding

1. Lock and Key

2. Induced Fit

3. Enzyme requirements

1. Temperature - Optimal temperature is around 40 degrees and enzyme activity increases up to this point but then denaturation would occur after.

2. pH - there is optimal pH.  In human, it's around  7.2 except in the stomach where Pepsin needs 2 and pancreas where it is around 8.5

3. Concentration - higher the substrate concentration, faster the reaction will go until active sites are full.

4. Cofactors - metal cations which make the enzyme active

4. Enzyme Activities

1. Hydrolysis

2. Synthesis

6. Nucleic Acids

1. General

1. Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus

2. Polymers of nucleotides

3. Stores all information required by an organism to produce proteins and replicate

Cell Biology

1. Cell Theory

1. All living things are composed of cells

2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life

3. Cell arises only from pre-existing cells

4. Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA and is passed from parent cell to daughter cell.

2. Studying the Cell

1. Microscopy

1. Compound light microscope

1. Staining usually kills the cell

2. Phase contract microscopy

1. Does not kill the specimen

3. Electron microscopy

1. Kills the specimen

2. Centrifugation

1. Separate the parts of a cell based on their density

3. Differences

1. Prokaryote and eukaryote

1. Bacteria vs higher life forms (protists, fungi, plants, and animals)

2. Cell wall present in all prokaryotes (with peptidoglycans)

3. No nucleus in prokaryotes

4. Different ribosome subunits

5. No membrane bound organelle in prokaryotes such as nucleus, lysosomes, vesicles, ER, and mitochondria.

6. Cellular respiration of prokaryotes occur at cell membrane.  In eukaryotes, it occurs across mitochondrial membrane.

2. Plants and Animals

1. No centrosome in plants

2. Cell walls composed of cellulose in plants

3. Chloroplasts in plants

4. Many vacuoles in plants

4. Parts of a cell

1. Cell Membrane

1. Selective permeability - regulates the passage of materials in and out

2. Fluid mosaic model - consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded throughout and they can move freely

3. Readily permeable to small non-polar molecules and VERY small polar molecules like water.

4. Larger charged molecules need the assistance of carrier proteins.

2. Nucleus

1. Controls the activities of the cell

2. Surrounded by a nuclear membrane (1 layer)

3. DNA is complexed with histones to form chromosomes

4. Nucleolus is a dense structure where ribosomal RNA synthesis occurs

3. Ribosome

1. Site of protein production

2. Synthesized by nucleolus

3. Found in cytoplasm and rough endoplasmic reticulum

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Network of membrane enclosed space involved in transport of materials

5. Golgi Apparatus

1. Receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them via glycosylation, repackage them into vesicles, and ship them out via exocytosis.

6. Mitochondria

1. Site of aerobic respiration within the cell

2. Surrounded by outer and inner phospholipid bilayer (2 layers)

7. Cytoplasm

1. Transport within the cytoplasm occurs by cyclosis

8. Vacuole

1. Membrane bound sacs involved in the transport and storage of materials.

9. Centrioles

1. Specialized microtubles involved in cell division.

2. Plants do no have centrioles

10. Lysosome

1. Membrane bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion.

11. Cytoskeleton

1. Composed of microtubules and microfilaments

2. For structure, shape, support and cell motility

5. Modes of transport

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

1. Plasmolysis - cell is hypertonic to the medium and loses water

3. Facilitated diffusion

4. Active transport

1. Sodium/Potassium pump - moves 3 NA out for every 2 K in.  Inhibition of such would cause increase of NA inside cell.  With more solute inside cell, water will diffuse in, causing it to swell then lyse.

6. Circulation

1. Intracellular circulation

1. Brownian movement - Movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell

2. Cyclosis - circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell that transports molecules

3. Endoplasmic reticulum - provides channels throughout the cytoplasm and a direct passageway from plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane

2. Extracellular circulation

1. Diffusion - food goes in and out if close to the medium

2. Circulatory system - vessels with a pump (heart) to transport fluids