- Keywords
- Absorption - The passage of nutrient molecules through lining of the digestive tracts
- Anabolic reactions - build up of large chemicals
- Assimilation - the building of new tissues from digested food
- Catabolic reaction - break down of large chemicals
- Digestion - the process of converting food into usable form
- Excretion - The removal of waste products
- Growth - Increase in size due to synthesis
- Homeostasis - The body's ability to change to adapt to external environment
- Ingestion - Acquisition of food and other raw materials
- Inorganic Compounds - Compounds that do not contain the element carbon
- Irritability - Ability to respond to a stimulus
- Metabolism - Sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body
- Organic Compounds - made by living systems and contain carbon
- Photosynthesis - process by which plants converts CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates
- Protoplasm - Substance of life
- Regulation - The control of physiological activities
- Reproduction - The generation of additional individuals of a species
- Respiration - The consumption of oxygen by the body
- Synthesis - The creation of complex molecules from simple ones.
- Transport - the circulation of essential compounds
- Types of Protein
- Simple - Composed entirely of amino acids
- Albumins and globulins - primarily globular in nature. Carriers or enzymes.
- Scleroproteins - fibrous in nature and act as structural protein. Collagen.
- Conjugated - Simple protein portion with nonprotein parts.
- Lipoprotein - protein bound to lipid
- Mucoprotein - protein bound to carbohydrate
- Chromoproteins - protein bound to pigmented molecules
- Metalloproteins - protein complexed around a metal ion
- Nucleoproteins - protein containing histone or protamine (bound to DNA)
- Cell Terminology
- Autolysis - rupture of lysosome membrane and cell suicides
- Brownian movement - Movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell
- Cyclosis - streaming movement within the cell
Biochemistry
- General
- All living things composed of
- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus
- In trace amounts of magnesium, iodine, iron, calcium, and other minerals
- Carbohydrates
- General
- Consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in 1:2:1 ratio
- It is a storage form of energy
- dehydration synthesis - joins saccharide units together by loss of a water molecule
- Hydrolysis - break down of saccharide polymers
- Monosaccharide
- Fructose, Glucose, Galactose, Mannose
- Disaccharide
- Maltose and Sucrose
- Polysaccharide
- Cellulose, Starch, Glycogen
- Lipids
- General
- Consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- H:O ratio is 2:1 with a lot more hydrogen than oxygen
- Backbone structure consists of 3 fatty acid bonded to a single glycerol backbone.
- Three dehydration synthesis are required to form one fat molecule
- Chief means of food storage in animals
- Release more energy per gram weight than any other class of biological compounds
- Provides insulation and protection against injury
- Derivatives
- Phospholipids
- Contain glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate group, and nitrogen containing alcohol
- Examples
- Lecithin - major constituent of cell membranes
- Cephalin - found in brain, nerves, and neural tissue
- Ester
- Esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols
- Found as protective coating on skin, on fur, on leaves, on exoskeleton of insects
- Examples
- Lanolin - a fatty substance obtained in wool and used in soaps, cosmetic, and ointments
- Steroids
- All have three fused cyclohexane rings and one fused cyclopentane ring
- Examples
- Cholesterol -
- Sex hormones - testosterone, estrogen
- Corticosteroids -
- Carotenoids
- Fataty acid-like carbon chains containing conjugated double bonds and carry a 6 carbon ring at the end
- Pigments that produces colors in animals and plants
- Examples
- Carotenes
- Xanthophylls
- Porphyrins
- Called tetra-pyrroles which contains 4 joined pyrrole rings
- Often complexed with metal.
- In hemoglobin, porphyrin heme is complexed with Iron
- In chlorophylls, porphyrin is complexed with Magnesium
- Proteins
- General
- Consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. May contain Phosphorus and Sulfur.
- Polymers of amino acid joined by peptide bonds via dehydration synthesis.
- Protein Functions
- Hormones - chemical messengers
- Examples
- ACTH - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone secreted by anterior pituitary
- Insulin
- Enzymes - increases rate of reactions
- Examples
- Amylase, lipase, ATPASE
- Structural proteins - physical support of a cell or tissue
- Examples
- Collagen
- Transport proteins - carriers of important materials
- Examples
- Hemoglobin - blood
- Cytochromes - carries electrons during cellular respiration
- Antibodies - Binds to foreign particles
- Enzymes
- General
- Protein organic catalysts
- Substrates are the reactants, and it binds to the active site.
- Enzymes can be used for both forward and reverse reactions
- Two models of binding
- Lock and Key
- Induced Fit
- Enzyme requirements
- Temperature - Optimal temperature is around 40 degrees and enzyme activity increases up to this point but then denaturation would occur after.
- pH - there is optimal pH. In human, it's around 7.2 except in the stomach where Pepsin needs 2 and pancreas where it is around 8.5
- Concentration - higher the substrate concentration, faster the reaction will go until active sites are full.
- Cofactors - metal cations which make the enzyme active
- Enzyme Activities
- Hydrolysis
- Synthesis
- Nucleic Acids
- General
- Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus
- Polymers of nucleotides
- Stores all information required by an organism to produce proteins and replicate
Cell Biology
- Cell Theory
- All living things are composed of cells
- The cell is the basic functional unit of life
- Cell arises only from pre-existing cells
- Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA and is passed from parent cell to daughter cell.
- Studying the Cell
- Microscopy
- Compound light microscope
- Staining usually kills the cell
- Phase contract microscopy
- Does not kill the specimen
- Electron microscopy
- Kills the specimen
- Centrifugation
- Separate the parts of a cell based on their density
- Differences
- Prokaryote and eukaryote
- Bacteria vs higher life forms (protists, fungi, plants, and animals)
- Cell wall present in all prokaryotes (with peptidoglycans)
- No nucleus in prokaryotes
- Different ribosome subunits
- No membrane bound organelle in prokaryotes such as nucleus, lysosomes, vesicles, ER, and mitochondria.
- Cellular respiration of prokaryotes occur at cell membrane. In eukaryotes, it occurs across mitochondrial membrane.
- Plants and Animals
- No centrosome in plants
- Cell walls composed of cellulose in plants
- Chloroplasts in plants
- Many vacuoles in plants
- Parts of a cell
- Cell Membrane
- Selective permeability - regulates the passage of materials in and out
- Fluid mosaic model - consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded throughout and they can move freely
- Readily permeable to small non-polar molecules and VERY small polar molecules like water.
- Larger charged molecules need the assistance of carrier proteins.
- Nucleus
- Controls the activities of the cell
- Surrounded by a nuclear membrane (1 layer)
- DNA is complexed with histones to form chromosomes
- Nucleolus is a dense structure where ribosomal RNA synthesis occurs
- Ribosome
- Site of protein production
- Synthesized by nucleolus
- Found in cytoplasm and rough endoplasmic reticulum
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Network of membrane enclosed space involved in transport of materials
- Golgi Apparatus
- Receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them via glycosylation, repackage them into vesicles, and ship them out via exocytosis.
- Mitochondria
- Site of aerobic respiration within the cell
- Surrounded by outer and inner phospholipid bilayer (2 layers)
- Cytoplasm
- Transport within the cytoplasm occurs by cyclosis
- Vacuole
- Membrane bound sacs involved in the transport and storage of materials.
- Centrioles
- Specialized microtubles involved in cell division.
- Plants do no have centrioles
- Lysosome
- Membrane bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion.
- Cytoskeleton
- Composed of microtubules and microfilaments
- For structure, shape, support and cell motility
- Modes of transport
- Diffusion
- Osmosis
- Plasmolysis - cell is hypertonic to the medium and loses water
- Facilitated diffusion
- Active transport
- Sodium/Potassium pump - moves 3 NA out for every 2 K in. Inhibition of such would cause increase of NA inside cell. With more solute inside cell, water will diffuse in, causing it to swell then lyse.
- Circulation
- Intracellular circulation
- Brownian movement - Movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell
- Cyclosis - circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell that transports molecules
- Endoplasmic reticulum - provides channels throughout the cytoplasm and a direct passageway from plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane
- Extracellular circulation
- Diffusion - food goes in and out if close to the medium
- Circulatory system - vessels with a pump (heart) to transport fluids
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